Christy introduces us to the history of societal responses to children and new media.
Question: Who was the guest podcaster on this episode?
Answer: Christy
Links:
HP059: Rwandan Holocaust
The Rwandan Genocide was the slaughter of an estimated 1 million Tutsis and moderate Hutus, mostly carried out by two extremist Hutu militia groups, the Interahamwe and the Impuzamugambi, during a period of 100 days from April 6th through mid-July 1994.
Hello and welcome to history podcast. Thank you for listening. You can find more information about this podcast at historypodcast.blogspot.com. Today we will give you the final question to the book contest. Where you have a chance to win Left to Tell, the harrowing story of a young woman’s survival of the Rwandan Holocaust. I really enjoyed reading this book and I think that you will as well. But for right now please join me in learning a bit more about the 1994 Rwandan Holocaust.
Summary
The genocide in the tiny Central African country of Rwanda was one of the most intensive killing campaigns — possibly the most intensive — in human history. Few people realize, however, that the genocide included a marked gendercidal component; it was predominantly or overwhelmingly Tutsi and moderate Hutu males who were targeted by the perpetrators of the mass slaughter. The gendercidal pattern was also evident in the reprisal killings carried out by the Tutsi-led RPF guerrillas during and after the holocaust.
The background
The roots of Rwanda’s genocide lie in its colonial experience. First occupied and colonized by the Germans (1894-1916), during World War I the country was taken over by the Belgians, who ruled until independence in 1962. Utilizing the classic strategy of “divide and rule,” the Belgians granted preferential status to the Tutsi minority (constituting somewhere between 8 and 14 percent of the population at the time of the 1994 genocide). In pre-colonial Rwanda, the Tutsis had dominated the small Rwandan elite, but ethnic divisions between them and the majority Hutus (at least 85 percent of the population in 1999) were always fluid, and the two populations cannot be considered distinct “tribes.” Nor was inter-communal conflict rife. As Stephen D. Wrage states, “It is often remarked that the violence between Hutus and Tutsis goes back to time immemorial and can never be averted, but Belgian records show that in fact there was a strong sense among Rwandans … of belonging to a Rwandan nation, and that before around 1960, violence [along] ethnic lines was uncommon and mass murder of the sort seen in 1994 was unheard of.” (Wrage, “Genocide in Rwanda: Draft Case Study for Teaching Ethics and International Affairs,” unpublished paper, 2000.)
Whatever communal divisions existed were sharply heightened by Belgian colonial policy. As Gérard Prunier notes, “Using physical characteristics as a guide — the Tutsi were generally tall, thin, and more ‘European’ in their appearance than the shorter, stockier Hutu — the colonizers decided that the Tutsi and the Hutu were two different races. According to the racial theories of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Tutsi, with their more ‘European’ appearance, were deemed the ‘master race’ … By 1930 Belgium’s Rwandan auxiliaries were almost entirely Tutsi, a status that earned them the durable hatred of the Hutu.” (Prunier, “Rwanda’s Struggle to Recover from Genocide,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 99.) It was also the Belgians who (in 1933) instituted the identity-card system that designated every Rwandan as Hutu, Tutsi, or Twa (the last of these is an aboriginal group that in 1990 comprised about 1 percent of the Rwandan population). The identity cards were retained into the post-independence era, and provided crucial assistance to the architects of genocide as they sought to isolate their Tutsi victims.
As Africa moved towards decolonization after World War II, it was the better-educated and more prosperous Tutsis who led the struggle for independence. Accordingly, the Belgians switched their allegiance to the Hutus. Vengeful Hutu elements murdered about 15,000 Tutsis between 1959 and 1962, and more than 100,000 Tutsis fled to neighboring countries, notably Uganda and Burundi. Tutsis remaining in Rwanda were stripped of much of their wealth and status under the regime of Juvénal Habyarimana, installed in 1973. An estimated one million Tutsis fled the country (it is in part this massive outflow that makes the proportion of Tutsis in Rwanda in 1994 so difficult to determine). After 1986, Tutsis in Uganda formed a guerrilla organization, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), which aimed to invade Rwanda and overthrow the Habyarimana regime.
In 1990, the RPF launched its invasion, occupying zones in the northeast of Rwanda. In August 1993, at the Tanzanian town of Arusha, Habyarimana finally accepted an internationally-mediated peace treaty which granted the RPF a share of political power and a military presence in the capital, Kigali. Some 5,000 U.N. peacekeepers (UNAMIR, the United Nations Assistance Mission to Rwanda) were dispatched to bolster the accord. “But Hutu extremists in [Habyarimana’s] government did not accept the peace agreement,” writes Prunier. “Some of these extremists, who were high-level government officials and military personnel, had begun devising their own solution to the ‘Tutsi problem’ as early as 1992. Habyarimana’s controversial decision to make peace with the RPF won others over to their side, including opposition leaders. Many of those involved in planning the 1994 genocide saw themselves as patriots, defending their country against outside aggression. Moderate Hutus who supported peace with the RPF also became their targets.” (Prunier, “Rwanda’s Struggle …”) This was the so-called “Hutu Power” movement that organized and supervised the holocaust of April-July 1994.
On April 6, 1994, President Habyarimana’s plane was shot down by a surface-to-air missile as it approached Kigali airport. Responsibility for the assassination has never been confirmed, but the speed with which the genocide was subsequently launched strongly suggests that the Hutu extremists had decided to rid themselves of their accommodating president, and implement a “final solution” to the Tutsi “problem” in Rwanda.
Within 24 hours of Presidents jet being downed, roadblocks sprang up around Kigali, manned by the so-called interahamwe militia (the name means “those who attack together”). Tutsis were separated from Hutus and hacked to death with machetes at roadside (although many taller Hutus were presumed to be Tutsis and were also killed). “Doing murder with a machete is exhausting, so the militias were organized to work in shifts. At the day’s end, the Achilles tendons of unprocessed victims were sometimes cut before the murderers retired to rest, to feast on the victims’ cattle and to drink. Victims who could afford to pay often chose to die from a bullet.” (Wrage, “Genocide in Rwanda.”) Meanwhile, death-squads working from carefully-prepared lists went from neighborhood to neighborhood in Kigali. They murdered not only Tutsis but moderate Hutus, including the prime minister, Agathe Uwilingiyimana. The prime minister was guarded by a detachment of Belgian soldiers; these were arrested, disarmed, tortured, and murdered, prompting Belgium — as intended — to withdraw the remainder of its U.N. troops from Rwanda.
With breathtaking speed, the genocide expanded from Kigali to the countryside. Government radio encouraged Tutsis to congregate at churches, schools, and stadiums, pledging that these would serve as places of refuge. Thus gathered, the helpless civilians could be more easily targeted — although many miraculously managed to resist with only sticks and stones for days or even weeks, until the forces of the Rwandan army and presidential guard were brought in to exterminate them with machine-guns and grenades. By April 21 — that is, in just two weeks — perhaps a quarter of a million Tutsis and moderate Hutus had been slaughtered. Together with the mass murder of Soviet prisoners-of-war during World War II, it was the most concentrated act of genocide in human history: “the dead of Rwanda accumulated at nearly three times the rate of Jewish dead during the Holocaust.” (Philip Gourevitch, We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families: Stories from Rwanda [Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1998], p. 3.) (Gérard Prunier provides an even higher estimate: “the daily killing rate was at least five times that of the Nazi death camps.” Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide [Columbia University Press, 1995], p. 261.) By the end of April, according to Human Rights Watch, “the worst massacres had finished … perhaps half of the Tutsi population of Rwanda” had been murdered.
The gender dimension of the killings is one of the least-known and least-investigated aspects of the Rwanda genocide. But an increasing number of sources have acknowledged, with Ronit Lentin, that “Throughout the genocide, it was Tutsi men who were the primary target.” (Lentin, “Introduction: (En)gendering Genocides,” in Lentin, ed., Gender & Catastrophe [Zed Books, 1997], p. 12.) Judy El-Bushra writes that
During the war of 1994, and particularly as a result of the genocidal massacres which precipitated it, it was principally the men of the targeted populations who lost their lives or fled to other countries in fear. … This targeting of men for slaughter was not confined to adults: boys were similarly decimated, raising the possibility that the demographic imbalance will continue for generations. Large numbers of women also lost their lives; however, mutilation and rape were the principal strategies used against women, and these did not necessarily result in death. (Judy El-Bushra, “Transformed Conflict: Some Thoughts on a Gendered Understanding of Conflict Processes,” in Susie Jacobs et al., eds., States of Conflict: Gender, Violence and Resistance [Zed Books, 2000], p. 73.)
The trend had been evident throughout the 1990-94 period, when numerous smaller-scale massacres of Tutsis took place, and when, according to Human Rights Watch and other observers, Tutsi males were targeted almost exclusively, as presumed or “potential” members of the RPF guerrilla force.
There are strong indications that the gendering of the Rwandan genocide evolved between April and June 1994, with adult males targeted almost exclusively before the genocide and predominantly in its early stages, but with more children and women swept up in the later stages. (For somewhat similar trends, see the Armenia and Jewish holocaust case studies.) In a comprehensive 1999 report on the genocide, Alison Des Forges wrote: “In the past Rwandans had not usually killed women in conflicts and at the beginning of the genocide assailants often spared them. When militia had wanted to kill women during an attack in Kigali in late April, for example, Renzaho [a principal leader of the genocide] had intervened to stop it. Killers in Gikongoro told a woman that she was safe because ‘Sex has no ethnic group.’ The number of attacks against women [from mid-May onwards], all at about the same time, indicates that a decision to kill women had been made at the national level and was being implemented in local communities.” (See Human Rights Watch, “Mid-May Slaughter: Women and Children as Victims,” in Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda.)
It must be stressed that if such a new stage of killing can indeed be isolated, this does not mean that women and girls were immune to mass murder until that point. Although the number of women actually killed was substantially lower than the number of murdered men, many women (along with girl children) were massacred from the outset. They were also exposed to a wide range of horrific (if generally non-fatal) abuses.
Rwanda may in fact stand as the paradigmatic example of “genocidal rape,” owing to the fact that many of the Tutsi women who were gang-raped have subsequently tested positive for the HIV virus. According to the UK Guardian, “rape was a weapon of genocide as brutal as the machete.” “I was raped by so many interahamwe and soldiers that I lost count,” said one survivor, Olive Uwera. “I was in hospital for a year afterwards. A few months after my child was born the doctors told me I was HIV-positive.” Tests conducted on the 25,000 Tutsi women members of the Widows of Genocide organization (Avega) showed that “two-thirds were found to be HIV-positive. … Soon there will be tens of thousands of children who have lost their fathers to the machete and their mothers to Aids.” (See Chris McGreal, “A Pearl in Rwanda’s Genocide Horror”, The Guardian [UK], December 5, 2001.
Reprisal killings of Hutus
As soon as the genocide broke out, the Tutsi-led RPF launched a concerted drive on Kigali, crushing Rwandan government resistance and bringing a halt to the genocide in successive areas of the country. RPF forces based in Kigali also took up arms, and succeeded in protecting a large number of residents from the holocaust. On July 4, 1994, Kigali fell to the RPF, and the genocide and “war” finally came to an end on July 18. There followed a massive flight of Hutus to neighboring countries, notably to refugee camps in Zaire, as well as large-scale reprisals against Hutus who were alleged to have participated in the holocaust. Most of these reprisal killings also had strong gendercidal overtones. For example, in the town of Mututu, according to Human Rights Watch (Leave None to Tell the Story):
RPF soldiers asked children to go bring back the adults in their families who were hiding in the fields and bush. On June 10, after several hundred adults had returned, the soldiers directed them to assemble at the commercial center to be transported to a safer location to the east. The RPF reportedly killed a number of young men at the market place late in the afternoon and tied up some of the others. The crowd was directed to set out for the commune, about one hour away by foot. The soldiers reportedly killed some men on the way and threw their bodies in latrines or in a compost heap at a reservoir. In another report from the same area, witnesses said that RPF soldiers and armed civilians gathered men and adolescent boys at the home of a man named Rutekereza and then killed them.
In another case, a witness reported that “I saw the the RPF soldiers bringing bodies in trucks at night and throwing them in toilets at Mwogo, near where they had dug their trenches. They brought men already wounded with their arms tied behind their backs. They brought no women.” Various other incidents cited by the Human Rights Watch investigators attest to the broad gendercidal pattern. In other instances, however, “The [RPF] soldiers killed without regard to age, sex, or ethnic group.” (Human Rights Watch, Leave None to Tell the Story.) The organization cites sources to the effect that between 25,000 and 45,000 Hutus were killed in all, though other estimates are higher.
How many died?
According to Gérard Prunier, “Because of the chaotic nature of the genocide, the total number of people killed has never been systematically assessed, but most experts believe the total was around 800,000 people. This includes about 750,000 Tutsis and approximately 50,000 politically moderate Hutus who did not support the genocide. … Only about 130,000 Tutsis survived the massacres.” Some, though, have taken issue with Prunier’s (and others’) estimates, alleging that the number of Tutsis in Rwanda was lower at the outbreak of the genocide than is generally believed. By these measures, “an estimated 500,000 Rwandan Tutsi were killed, or more than three-quarters of their population. … The number of Hutu killed during the genocide and civil war is even less certain, with estimates ranging from 10,000 to well over 100,000.” (Alan J. Kuperman, “Genocide in Rwanda and the Limits of Humanitarian Military Intervention,” unpublished paper, 2000; see also Kuperman, “Rwanda in Retrospect,” Foreign Affairs, January/February 2000.)
In February 2002, the Rwandan government released the results of the first major census that sought to establish the number of people killed in the genocide and during its prelude period (1990-94). It found that 1,074,017 people — approximately one-seventh of the total population — were murdered, with Tutsis accounting for 94 percent of the victims. (“More Than One Million Rwandans Killed in 1990’s,” Associated Press dispatch, February 14, 2002.)
The proportion of males among those killed can only be guessed at, but was probably in the vicinity of 75 or 80 percent.
Who was responsible?
The genocidal and gendercidal strategy was conceived and implemented by a small circle of Rwandan government officials, led by the Hutu extremist Theoneste Bagosora, “a retired army Colonel who held the post of acting defense minister on the day Habyarimana was killed. In the hours and days after the assassination, Bagosora apparently orchestrated both the genocide and formation of an interim government to support it.” Another key organizer of the holocaust was Mme. Agathe Habyarimana, wife of the murdered president and one of the very few women who have played a central role in the planning and perpetration of genocide. These leaders were able to exploit the highly-centralized nature of the Rwandan state (probably unparalleled anywhere in the world outside the state-socialist bloc): “The genocide happened not because the state was weak, but on the contrary because it was so totalitarian and strong that it had the capacity to make its subjects obey absolutely any order, including one of mass slaughter.” (Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis, pp. 353-54.)
The generally “low-tech” means by which the killing was carried out — the murderers standardly used machetes or hoes — required the involvement of a large proportion of the Hutu population. “Videotapes of the killings show that three or more killers often hacked on a single victim. Since the organizers wished to implicate as many people in the killing as possible, there may have been many more killers than victims.” (Wrage, “Genocide in Rwanda.”)
[Rwandan] authorities offered tangible incentives to participants. They delivered food, drink, and other intoxicants, parts of military uniforms and small payments in cash to hungry, jobless young men. … Many poor young men responded readily to the promise of rewards. Of the nearly 60 percent of Rwandans under the age of twenty, tens of thousands had little hope of obtaining the land needed to establish their own households or the jobs necessary to provide for a family. Such young men, including many displaced by the war and living in camps near the capital provided many of the early recruits to the Interahamwe, trained in the months before and in the days immediately after the genocide began. (Human Rights Watch, Leave None to Tell the Story.)
Controversy has raged since 1994 over the role of foreign governments and the United Nations in allowing the genocide to proceed. According to Alison Des Forges of Human Rights Watch,
During the early weeks of slaughter international leaders did not use the word “genocide,” as if avoiding the term could eliminate the obligation to confront the crime. The major international actors — policymakers in Belgium, the U.S., France, and the U.N. — all understood the gravity of the crisis within the first twenty-four hours even if they could not have predicted the massive toll that the slaughter would eventually take. They could have used national troops or UNAMIR or a combined force of both to confront the killers and immediately save lives. By disrupting the killing campaign at its central and most essential point, the foreign soldiers could have disabled it throughout the country. … Major international leaders were ready to collaborate on the common goal of evacuating their own citizens and expatriate employees, but they refused any joint intervention to save Rwandan lives. Instead they focused on issues of immediate importance for their own countries: Belgium on extricating its peacekeepers with a minimum of dishonor; the U.S. on avoiding committing resources to a crisis remote from U.S. concerns; and France on protecting its client and its zone of Francophone influence. Meanwhile most staff at the U.N. were fixed on averting another failure in peacekeeping operations, even at the cost of Rwandan lives. (See Human Rights Watch, “Ignoring Genocide”, in Leave None to Tell the Story.)
On April 7, 2000, the sixth anniversary of the outbreak of the genocide, Belgium’s prime minister apologized for the international community’s failure to intervene. Guy Verhofstadt told a crowd of thousands at the site of Rwanda’s planned memorial to the genocide that “A dramatic combination of negligence, incompetence and hesitation created the conditions for the tragedy.” (Hrvoje Hranjski, “Belgium Apologizes for World’s Inaction During Rwanda Chaos,” Associated Press dispatch, April 8, 2000.)
In the wake of the holocaust, the U.N. established the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), based in Arusha, Tanzania. In September 1998, the Tribunal issued its first conviction on charges of genocide, against the former mayor of the Rwandan town of Taba, Jean-Paul Akayesu. As Rudy Brueggemann points out, this marked “the first time ever [that] a suspect was convicted by an international tribunal for the crime of genocide.” A day later, the ICTR sentenced the former Hutu prime minister, Jean Kambanda, to life in prison; he had pled guilty to “genocide, conspiracy to commit genocide, direct and public incitement to commit genocide, complicity in genocide and two charges of crimes against humanity.” A total of thirty-two other Rwandan Hutu officials are currently awaiting trial. However, according to the Public Education Center of The New York Times, “after five years, the Tribunal’s accomplishments are still often overshadowed by its failures. Its operations are slow, unwieldy, and at the worst of times unprofessional, and its own limited mandate conspires with international indifference to undermine its core message.”
In Rwanda itself, some 120,000 people were jailed on allegations of participation in the genocide, and thousands died in the brutal and unsanitary conditions of the jails. As of April 2000, some 2,500 people had been tried, with about 300 of them receiving death sentences.
The scars of the genocide and subsequent reprisals will remain with Rwandans for generations, and may yet provoke another round of mass killing. Prunier writes: “Rwanda’s economy remains badly damaged, with little hope of a quick recovery. There are several reasons for this, including the lack of roads, bridges, and telephone lines. Education is also suffering due to a shortage of schools, educational materials, and teachers, many of whom died in the genocide. … Many Tutsis are increasingly convinced that the only way to ensure their survival is to repress the Hutus. Many Hutus believe they have been proclaimed guilty by association and that no one cares about their sufferings under the current Tutsi-led government. Extremists on both sides retain the belief that the only solution is the annihilation of the other. These groups are preparing for a future struggle, one that could include another wave of mass slaughter.” (Prunier, “Rwanda’s Struggle …”)
listener appreciation segment:
Frapper Mappers:
1.Jeff Young from Avon, NY
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3.Dan Thomas from Columbus, Indiana
4.Norm from Shanghai, China
5.Mosespunch from Prior Lake, Minnesota
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Lots of action on forums
Send in the questions answers to this months podcast to historypodcast@gmail.com for a chance to win Left To Tell. I am very excited to be able to give away a book to the listeners of this podcast. Please enter by answering the questions. Here is a quick re-cap:
Question: What is the first year Michelle mentions as a stock market crash?
Question: When did Patton graduate from West Point?
Question: Who introduced todays episode of historypodcast?
Question: Where was Antoni Gaudí born?
And todays question:
Question: Name one of the three ethnic divisions of Rwandan’s mentioned in this episode? Twa, Hutu or Tutsi
send in this questions and their answers which are posted on the website to historypodcast@gmail.com to enter the contest for Left to Tell. A winner will be chosen at random from the submissions. I will email the winner prior to the next episode and will also announce them as the winner on the next episode.
Next months book will be The Brother Bulger by Howie Carr. A gracious gift from Warner Books.
You can contact via email at historypodcast@gmail.com. The website can be found at historypodcast.blogspot.com
Thanks for listening and we will see you next episode.
Question and Answers Re-cap:
1. Question: What is the first year Michelle mentions as a stock market crash?
Answer: 1929
2. Question: When did Patton graduate from West Point?
Answer: June, 11, 1909
3. Question: Who introduced todays episode (57) of historypodcast?
Answer: Lauren
4. Question: Where was Antoni Gaudí born?
Answer: Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain
5. Question: Name one of the three ethnic divisions of Rwandan’s mentioned in this episode?
Answer: Twa, Hutu or Tutsi
Links:
This Months Book:
Left To Tell : Discovering God Amidst the Rwandan Holocaust
Next Months Book:
The Brothers Bulger : How They Terrorized and Corrupted Boston for a Quarter Century
HP058: Antoni Gaudi
Spanish architect who worked mainly in Barcelona, developing a startling new style that paralleled developments in art nouveau. His most celebrated work is the façade of the Expiatory Church of the Holy Family.
Antoni Gaudí
(b. Reus, Spain 1852; d. Barcelona, Spain 1926)
In 1852, Antoni Gaudí was born in Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain. Although no one knows the exact location of his birthplace, most believe the town was Reus, but a few claim it was Riudoms. Regardless, it´s confirmed that he was baptized the day after his birth in Reus. His parents, Francesc Gaudí Serra and Antonia Cornet Bertran, both came from metalsmith families, with his father´s profession being a coppersmith. Gaudí, the youngest of five children, found himself unable to play with friends his age, due to rheumatism, a non-specific term for medical problems affecting the heart, bones, joints, kidney, skin and lung. Due to the considerable pain, triggered by rheumatism, very rarely was he able to walk on foot. Whenever, he ventured from his home, he was forced to ride a donkey. As a result, he remained close to home, which allowed him substantial free time to examine nature and its design. His exposure to nature at an early age is perceived to have provided the opportunity to hone in on two of his greatest qualities: observation and the analysis of nature. An attentive observer of nature, Gaudí felt attracted to its forms, colours and geometry. Despite his rheumatism, Gaudí did attend school. At a young age, Gaudí entered a nursery school under the instruction of Francesc Berenguer. It´s reported that his imaginative qualities began to manifest themselves. For example, when Berenguer lectured the child on how wings let birds fly, Gaudí observed that chickens do not fly. He deducted that their wings must help them run faster.
When the time came for Gaudí´s formal education, he enrolled in the Collegi de les Escoles Píes de Reus. At this school, he soon became fast friends with Eduard Toda and Josep Ribera. Their intense curiosity of nature most likely inspired them to learn all they could about it. During his time, Gaudí did not make the best of grades. However, he made drastic improvement strides in the area of geometry. At this point, Gaudi´s lifelong intrigue and fascination of geometry was sparked. Its first major effect was obviously his career choice, architecture.
In 1868, Gaudí began his studies at the Escola Superior d´Arquitectura in Barcelona, a college dominated by neo-classical and romantic trends. He designed his first major commission for the Casa Vincens in Barcelona using a Gothic Revival style that set a precedent for his future work. Thus, his first architectural production incorporated a reinterpretation of historical canons with oriental influence and the recovery of medieval events.
In 1873 through 1877, Gaudí was enrolled at Barcelona´s Escuela Tècnica Superior d´Arquitectura as an architecture student. He achieved only mediocre grades, but did well in his “Trial drawings and projects” course. In 1878, after five years of work as an architecture student, he was awarded the title of architect. As he signed Gaudí´s title, Elies Rogent declared, “I have either found a lunatic or a genius.” The newly named architect immediately began to plan and design, as well as maintained an affiliation with the school his entire life.
Throughout Gaudí life, he so passionately upheld a fascination with nature. He studied nature´s angles and curves, as these elements were incorporated them into his designs. This is demonstrations by his utilization of architecture mimicking the way trees and humans grow and stand upright rather than rely on geometric shapes. The hyperboloids and paraboloids he borrowed from nature were easily reinforced by steel rods. This permitted his designs to resemble elements from the environment. Due to his rheumatism, he observed a strict vegetarian diet, used homeopathic drug therapy, underwent water therapy, and hiked regularly. He was able to venture out on long walks, which aided in the suppression of his rheumatism, as well as increased his interaction with nature, its facets and design.
Gaudí was an ardent Catholic and a fervent Catalan nationalist, as he was once arrested for speaking in Catalan in a situation deemed illegal by authorities. Here’s some insight to Catalan:
This is a region of the northeastern part of Spain, which spans the Pyrenees Mountains, France’s southern border to the Mediterranean coastline.
This area upholds a rich history that predates the Greek and Roman days, and today nurtures a well-preserved language and a distinct culture. In fact, there are currently more than eight million people speak Catalan, which is about one-sixth of Spain’s population
The Catalan heritage actually dates as far back as the Paleolithic Era. Later, Iberians and Celts arrived. Greek colonization introduced crops such as grapes and olives, along with the alphabet and metal coinage. The Romans occupied this area for six centuries, forming a strong foundation for the new country
About one-hundred-fifty years ago, Barcelona’s unprecedented wealth forced the city out of its medieval walls, which enabled architects, such as Gaudí, to design buildings that epitomize the virtuosity and the delirium of the times. The opportunities afforded by Catalonia´s socioeconomic and political environments were endless. Catalonians such as Antonio Gaudí often showcased the region´s diverse art techniques in their works. By mimicking nature, such artists symbolically pushed back the province´s ever-increasing industrial society. Gaudí, among others, promoted the Catalan nationalist movement by incorporating elements of Catalan culture in his designs.
Picasso and Miró who have museums dedicated to some of their more important works. Dozens of other museums and art galleries throughout the Barcelona
Numerous doors were opened for him among the bourgeoisie, artists, and intellectuals of the time. The young architect had a reputation for dressing in the latest fashion, and surrounding himself by high society. However, Gaudi never forgot his working-class roots. His first major project as a professional architect was workers´ housing in a factory, the Coopertiva Mataronese, which was intended to improve the workers´ quality of life. Gaudi presented his design at the Paris World Fair in 1878. It was there that he met Eusebi Guell, the man who would become one of the artist’s closest friends and most loyal patrons. In the following years, with rapidly growing interest in his work, Gaudi took on many important projects. Among them was the house built for the wealthy ceramic manufacturer, Manuel Vicens, as well as “El Capricho,” a villa for the brother-in-law of the Marquee of Comillas. Soon after, Gaudi began designing a palace for his good friend Guell (Palau Guell), and then later the two collaborated on Park Guell, which was intended to be a garden city. Gaudi biography is closely related to the Güell family, a family with a huge prestige in industrial and artistic circles at this time in Barcelona.
For this reason, he build for this family the Palau Güell, the Park Güell, the Colonia Güell and other works.
In his later years, he abandoned secular work and devoted his life to Catholicism and his esteemed Catholic Church, Sagrada Familia, which is still under-construction to this day. Soon after he began his commission on the Sagrada Familia, his closest family and friends began to die. As a result, his works slowed to a halt, and his attitude changed. Perhaps one of his closest family members – his niece Rosa Egea – passed away in 1912, only to be followed by a “faithful collaborator, Francesc Berenguer Mestres” two years later. After both tragedies, Barcelona fell on hard times, economically. The construction of La Sagrada Família slowed; the construction of La Colonia Güell ceased altogether. Four years later, Eusebi Güell died. Perhaps it was because of this unfortunate sequence of events that Gaudí changed. He became reluctant to talk with reporters or have his picture taken and solely concentrated on his masterpiece, La Sagrada Familia.
On June 7, 1926, Antoni Gaudí was run over by a tram. Due to his ragged attire and empty pockets, multiple cab drivers sadly refused to pick him up for fear that he would be unable to pay the fare. He was eventually taken to a pauper´s hospital in Barcelona. Nobody recognized the injured artist until his friends found him the next day. When they tried to move him into a nicer hospital, Gaudí refused, reportedly saying “I belong here among the poor.” He died two days later, half of Barcelona mourning his death. It was, perhaps, fitting that he was buried in the midst of his unfinished masterpiece, La Sagrada Família.
Gaudí´s major works include:
View of the Park Güell, El Carmel, Barcelona.
- Casa Vicens (1878-1880)
- Palau Güell (1885-1889)
- College of the Teresianas (1888-1890)
- Crypt of the Church of Colònia Güell (1898-1916)
- Casa Calvet (1899-1904)
- Casa Batlló (1905-1907)
- Casa Milà (La Pedrera) (1905-1907)
- Park Güell (1900-1914)
- Sagrada Família (1884-1926)
Here´s background on Gaudí´s Artistic style
Gaudí´s unfinished masterpiece, Sagrada Família
Gaudí´s first works were designed in the style of gothic and traditional Catalan architectural modes, but he soon developed his own distinct sculptural style
French architect Eugene Viollet-le-Duc, who promoted an evolved form of gothic architecture, proved a major influence on Gaudí. However, interestingly enough, Gaudí surpassed the master architect and contrived highly original designs – irregular and fantastically intricate. Some of his greatest works, most notably La Sagrada Família, have an almost hallucinatory power.
He integrated the following naturalistic elements to his work: parabolic arch, nature´s organic shapes, and the fluidity of water into his architecture.
He observed the forces of gravity and related catenary principles. This is observed through his design through many of his arches upside down by hanging various weights on interconnected strings, using gravity to calculate catenaries for a natural curved arch.
He integrated Catalan style by decorating surfaces with broken tiles.
The architect´s work has been categorized as Art Nouveau architecture, a precursor to modern architecture. Gaudí was the greatest figure of the Art Nouveau movement in Catalonia known as “Modernisme”. But his adoption of biomorphic shapes rather than orthogonal lines put him in an exclusive category. His style was later echoed by that of Austrian architect Friedensreich Hundertwasser (1928–2000).
Amazingly, considering the depth of his work and being hailed as a genius, some hypothesize that Gaudí was color blind. As a result, some have concluded that his collaboration with Josep Maria Jujol, an architect twenty seven years his junior whom he acknowledged as a genius in his own right, was integral to the creation of his greatest works. Gaudí´s originality was at first ridiculed by his peers, however as time passed, his work became more famous. He is now revered as one of Catalonia´s best and brightest. In addition, Gaudí´s abandoned plans for a New York skyscraper hotel have influenced the plans for the redesign of New York´s World Trade Center. In 1992, five artists founded La Asociación pro Beatificación de Antonio Gaudí. Also, this secular association has pushed for the Catholic church to declare Gaudí blessed. Gaudí´s life and work inspired The Alan Parsons Project to create the 1987 album Gaudí.
Gaudi´s work recently inspired a shop owner in London to build a shopfront in the style of Casa Batlló.
Gaudi´s culmination of traditional elements with fanciful ornamentation and brilliant technical solutions paved the way for future architects to step outside the box.
Gaudí´s whimsical vision and imaginative designs are inspiring and awe striking. His health adversity allowed him to appreciate nature and become one of the most revered architects, with his work garnering international attention and drawing masses of people annually to the Catalonia region to see first hand the work of a master architect who drifted away from the traditional architectural forms to create unique masterpieces.
Gaudi, however, is most recognized for his work on “La Sagrada Familia,” a twentieth century cathedral in Barcelona. Gaudi took over the project in 1884 after a disagreement between a member of the Temple Council and the original project manager, Fracisco de Paula del Villar (Gaudi’s former professor), over materials. Antonio Gaudi was a mere 31 years of age when he officially gained control over the building. The architect devoted the next forty-two years of his life to its construction, until his sudden death at age 74 in 1926.
References
- Dennis Sharp. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Architects and Architecture. New York: Quatro Publishing, 1991. ISBN 0-8230-2539-X. NA40.I45. p61.
- Muriel Emmanuel. Contemporary Architects. New York: St. Martin´s Press, 1980. ISBN 0-312-16635-4. NA680.C625 1980.
Question: Where was Antoni Gaudí born?
Answer: Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain
Links to Artwork Images
HP057: Easter
Easter is the most important religious holiday of the Christian liturgical year, observed between late March and late April (early April to early May in Eastern Christianity) to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus, which Christians believe occurred after his death by crucifixion in AD 27-33 (see Good Friday). Easter can also refer to the season of the church year, lasting for fifty days, which follows this holiday and ends at Pentecost. Easter Day is also called the Sunday of the Resurrection.
Welcome to History Podcast episode 57. My name is Jason Watts and I will be your host for this special episode. I would like to preface this episode by stating that I am by no means a religious expert. The sources I use will all be attributed in the transcript of this episode. You can find further information on the website at: historypodcast.blogspot.com.
Easter is the most important religious holiday of the Christian liturgical year, observed in April in America to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus, which Christians believe occurred after his death by crucifixion in AD 27-33.
Good Friday is a holy day celebrated by Christians on the Friday before Easter or Pascha. It commemorates the crucifixion of Jesus at Calvary. Special prayer services are often held on this day with readings from the Gospel accounts of the events leading up to the crucifixion. Mainstream Christian churches view Christ’s crucifixion as a voluntary and vicarious act, and one by which, along with his resurrection on the third day, death itself was conquered.
Easter can also refer to the season of the church year, lasting for fifty days, which follows this holiday and ends at Pentecost.
According to the New Testament, Christ was crucified on the eve of Passover and shortly afterward rose from the dead. In consequence, the Easter festival commemorated Christ’s resurrection. In time, a serious difference over the date of the Easter festival arose among Christians. Those of Jewish origin celebrated the resurrection immediately following the Passover festival, which, according to their Babylonian lunar calendar, fell on the evening of the full moon (the 14th day in the month of Nisan, the first month of the year); by their reckoning, Easter, from year to year, fell on different days of the week.
Christians of Gentile origin, however, wished to commemorate the resurrection on the first day of the week, Sunday; by their method, Easter occurred on the same day of the week, but from year to year it fell on different dates. An important historical result of the difference in reckoning the date of Easter was that the Christian churches in the East, which were closer to the birthplace of the new religion and in which old traditions were strong, observed Easter according to the date of the Passover festival. The churches of the West, descendants of Greco-Roman civilization, celebrated Easter on a Sunday.
Constantine I, Roman emperor, convoked the Council of Nicaea in 325. The council unanimously ruled that the Easter festival should be celebrated throughout the Christian world on the first Sunday after the full moon following the vernal equinox; and that if the full moon should occur on a Sunday and thereby coincide with the Passover festival, Easter should be commemorated on the Sunday following. Coincidence of the feasts of Easter and Passover was thus avoided.
The Council of Nicaea also decided that the calendar date of Easter was to be calculated at Alexandria, then the principal astronomical center of the world. The accurate determination of the date, however, proved an impossible task in view of the limited knowledge of the 4th-century world. The principal astronomical problem involved was the discrepancy, called the epact, between the solar year and the lunar year. The chief calendric problem was a gradually increasing discrepancy between the true astronomical year and the Julian calendar then in use.
Ways of fixing the date of the feast tried by the church proved unsatisfactory, and Easter was celebrated on different dates in different parts of the world. In 387, for example, the dates of Easter in France and Egypt were 35 days apart. About 465, the church adopted a system of calculation proposed by the astronomer Victorinus (fl. 5th cent.), who had been commissioned by Pope Hilarius (r. 461–68) to reform the calendar and fix the date of Easter. Elements of his method are still in use. Refusal of the British and Celtic Christian churches to adopt the proposed changes led to a bitter dispute between them and Rome in the 7th century.
Reform of the Julian calendar in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII, through adoption of the Gregorian calendar, eliminated much of the difficulty in fixing the date of Easter and in arranging the ecclesiastical year; since 1752, when the Gregorian calendar was also adopted in Great Britain and Ireland, Easter has been celebrated on the same day in the Western part of the Christian world. The Eastern churches, however, which did not adopt the Gregorian calendar, commemorate Easter on a Sunday either preceding or following the date observed in the West. Occasionally the dates coincide; the most recent times were in 1865 and 1963.
Because the Easter holiday affects a varied number of secular affairs in many countries, it has long been urged as a matter of convenience that the movable dates of the festival be either narrowed in range or replaced by a fixed date in the manner of Christmas. In 1923 the problem was referred to the Holy See, which has found no canonical objection to the proposed reform. In 1928 the British Parliament enacted a measure allowing the Church of England to commemorate Easter on the first Sunday after the second Saturday in April. Despite these steps toward reform, Easter continues to be a movable feast.
Christian Origins
Easter is the annual festival commemorating the resurrection of Jesus Christ, and the principal feast of the Christian year. It is celebrated on a Sunday on varying dates between March 22 and April 25 and is therefore called a movable feast. The dates of several other ecclesiastical festivals, extending over a period between Septuagesima Sunday (the ninth Sunday before Easter) and the first Sunday of Advent, are fixed in relation to the date of Easter.
Connected with the observance of Easter are the 40-day penitential season of Lent, beginning on Ash Wednesday and concluding at midnight on Holy Saturday, the day before Easter Sunday; Holy Week, commencing on Palm Sunday, including Good Friday, the day of the crucifixion, and terminating with Holy Saturday; and the Octave of Easter, extending from Easter Sunday through the following Sunday. During the Octave of Easter in early Christian times, the newly baptized wore white garments, white being the liturgical color of Easter and signifying light, purity, and joy.
The Christian festival of Easter probably embodies a number of converging traditions; most scholars emphasize the original relation of Easter to the Jewish festival of Passover, or Pesach, from which is derived Pasch, another name for Easter. The early Christians, many of whom were of Jewish origin, were brought up in the Hebrew tradition and regarded Easter as a new feature of the Passover festival, a commemoration of the advent of the Messiah as foretold by the prophets.
Easter-related Holidays and Festivals
Holy Week
In the Christian liturgical year, the week immediately preceding Easter, beginning with Palm Sunday. Solemn rites are observed commemorating the passion, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Special observances recalling the institution of the EUCHARIST are held on Maundy Thursday; Scripture readings, solemn prayers, and veneration of the cross recall the crucifixion of Christ on Good Friday. Holy Saturday commemorates the burial of Christ; midnight vigil services inaugurate the Easter celebration of the resurrection. Holy Week is sometimes called the “Great Week” by Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christians because it commemorates the great deeds of God for humankind.
Mardi Gras/Carnival
(Fr., “fat Tuesday”), pre-Lenten festival celebrated in Roman Catholic countries and communities. In a strict sense, Mardi Gras, or Shrove Tuesday, is celebrated by the French as the last of the three days of Shrovetide and is a time of preparation immediately before Ash Wednesday and the start of the fast of LENT.
Mardi Gras is thus the last opportunity for merrymaking and indulgence in food and drink. In practice, the festival is generally celebrated for one full week before Lent. Mardi Gras is marked by spectacular parades featuring floats, pageants, elaborate costumes, masked balls, and people dancing in the streets.
Mardi Gras originated as one of the series of carnival days held in all Roman Catholic countries between Twelfth Night, or Epiphany, and Ash Wednesday; these carnivals had their origin in pre-Christian spring fertility rites. The most famous modern Mardi Gras festivities are those held in New Orleans, La.; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Nice, France; and Cologne, Germany.
Ash Wednesday
In Christian churches, the first day of the penitential season of Lent, so called from the ceremony of placing ashes on the forehead as a sign of penitence. This custom, probably introduced by Pope Gregory I, has been universal since the Synod of Benevento (1091). In the Roman Catholic church, ashes obtained from burned palm branches of the previous Palm Sunday are blessed before mass on Ash Wednesday. The priest places the blessed ashes on the foreheads of the officiating priests, the clergy, and the congregation, while reciting over each one the following formula: “Remember that you are dust, and unto dust you shall return.”
Lent
Period of fasting and penitence traditionally observed by Christians in preparation for Easter. The length of the Lenten fast, during which observants eat sparingly, was established in the 4th century as 40 days. In the Eastern churches, where both Saturdays and Sundays are regarded as festival days, the period of Lent is the eight weeks before Easter; in the Western churches, where only Sunday is regarded as a festival, the 40-day period begins on Ash Wednesday and extends, with the omission of Sundays, to the day before Easter. The observance of fasting or other forms of self-denial during Lent varies within Protestant and Anglican churches. These bodies emphasize penitence. The Roman Catholic church has in recent years relaxed its laws on fasting. According to an apostolic constitution issued by Pope Paul VI in February 1966, fasting and abstinence during Lent are obligatory only on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday.
Maundy Thursday
or “Holy Thursday”, the Thursday before Easter Sunday, observed by Christians in commemoration of Christ’s Last Supper. The name Maundy is derived from mandatum (Lat., “commandment”), the first word of an anthem sung in the liturgical ceremony on that day. In Roman Catholic and many Protestant churches, the Eucharist is celebrated in an evening liturgy that includes Holy Communion. During the Roman Catholic liturgy, the ceremony of the washing of the feet, or pedilavium, is performed: the celebrant washes the feet of 12 people to commemorate Christ’s washing of his disciples’ feet. In England a custom survives of giving alms (called “maundy pennies”) to the poor; this act recalls an earlier practice in which the sovereign washed the feet of the poor on Maundy Thursday. In most European countries, the day is known as Holy Thursday.
Good Friday
Friday immediately preceding Easter, celebrated by Christians as the anniversary of Christ’s crucifixion. The name Good Friday is generally believed to be a corruption of God’s Friday. Since the time of the early church, the day has been dedicated to penance, fasting, and prayer.
In the Roman Catholic church, the Good Friday liturgy is composed of three distinct parts: readings and prayers, including the reading of the Passion according to St. John; the veneration of the cross; and a general communion service (formerly called the Mass of the Presanctified), involving the reception of preconsecrated hosts by the priest and faithful.
From the 16th century on, the Good Friday service took place in the morning; in 1955 Pope Pius XII decreed that it be held in the afternoon or evening. As a result, such traditional afternoon devotions as the Tre Ore (Ital., “three hours”), consisting of sermons, meditations, and prayers centering on the three-hour agony of Christ on the cross, were almost entirely discontinued in the Roman Catholic church. In most of Europe, in South America, in Great Britain and many parts of the Commonwealth, and in several states of the U.S., Good Friday is a legal holiday.
Pagan Origins
Easter, a Christian festival, embodies many pre-Christian traditions. The origin of its name is unknown. Scholars, however, accepting the derivation proposed by the 8th-century English scholar St. Bede, believe it probably comes from Eastre, the Anglo-Saxon name of a Teutonic goddess of spring and fertility, to whom was dedicated a month corresponding to April. Her festival was celebrated on the day of the vernal equinox; traditions associated with the festival survive in the Easter rabbit, a symbol of fertility, and in colored easter eggs, originally painted with bright colors to represent the sunlight of spring, and used in Easter-egg rolling contests or given as gifts.
Such festivals, and the stories and legends that explain their origin, were common in ancient religions. A Greek legend tells of the return of Persephone, daughter of Demeter, goddess of the earth, from the underworld to the light of day; her return symbolized to the ancient Greeks the resurrection of life in the spring after the desolation of winter. Many ancient peoples shared similar legends. The Phrygians believed that their omnipotent deity went to sleep at the time of the winter solstice, and they performed ceremonies with music and dancing at the spring equinox to awaken him.
The Christian festival of Easter probably embodies a number of converging traditions; most scholars emphasize the original relation of Easter to the Jewish festival of Passover, or Pesach, from which is derived Pasch, another name for Easter. The early Christians, many of whom were of Jewish origin, were brought up in the Hebrew tradition and regarded Easter as a new feature of the Passover festival, a commemoration of the advent of the Messiah as foretold by the prophets.
Easter symbols
Eastre (or “Ostara”), the Anglo-Saxon Teutonic goddess of spring and fertility was often accompanied by a hare when represented. The fertile nature of rabbits and hares is another symbol of new life and the rebirth that occurs during the spring season.
Also, German settlers in America are said to have brought over the tradition of a bunny named “Oschter Haws” who would visit houses on Easter eve, leaving colored eggs for children. Easter eggs were painted different colors to represent the sunlight of spring. Christians later used eggs to symbolize the rebirth of Christ.
Another Easter tradition is the eating of Hot Cross Buns. These cakes were marked by the Saxons to honor Eastre, the fertility goddess. The crosses on the buns are said to represent the moon’s quarters, while Christians see the cross as a reference to the crucifixtion.
Thank you very much Michelle. She was just helping me out during my busy week, so we could get out a podcast today. I must aplogize for being late this week. At least it is only one day. In the beginning of the podcast was Lauren a listener from La Habra California who was kind enough to record a cool little introduction for us. And now I am very excited to play our very first voice message from the history hotline….
Wow, well thank you very much Christy. It sure is cool to hear from you on the road! Or record your comments and send them in an mp3 file to historypodcast@gmail.com.
Lots going on in the listner appreciation segment this week. Today is civilwarbuffs birthday from the forums so HAPPY BIRTHDAY!
Listner Mark aka The M Train sent in an email asking about other good history podcast. I had been thinking updating the webpage with the history podcast and other podcast that I listen to and Mark finally got me to do it with his request. So go and check out the website for links to six other history related podcast that I listen to.
While I was updating the website I also added the libsyn player, so you can now listen to the podcast straight off the website.
This weeks question to win the book Left to Tell, a heroing story of a young womans struggle to survive the Rwandan Holocost is….
This weeks frapper mappers are:
1.Gavin Lee from London, England
2.Paul Cline from Las Vegas Nevada
3.Becky from Howell, Michigan
4.Morgan from Jacksonville, Florida
5.and Julie from Slickville, Pennsylvania
Thank you all so much for listening. A Special thanks to Laruen and Christy for making guest appearances on the show and a big thank you to Michelle for this weeks hosting. Happy Birthday to Civilwarbuff and a very Happy Easter to all who celebrate it!
Question: Who introduced todays episode of historypodcast?
Answer: Lauren.
Links
HP056: General George Patton
George Smith Patton, Jr. was a leading U.S. Army general in World War II. In his 36-year Army career, he was an advocate of armored warfare and commanded major units of North Africa, Sicily, and the European Theater of Operations. Many have viewed Patton as a pure and ferocious warrior, known by the nickname “Old Blood and Guts”, a name given to him after a reporter misquoted his statement that it takes blood and brains to win a war. But history has left the image of a brilliant military leader whose record was also marred by insubordination and some periods of apparent instability. He once said, “Lead me, follow me, or get the hell out of my way.”
Question: When did Patton graduate from West Point?
Answer: June, 11, 1909
Welcome to episode 56 of historypodcast. I’m your host Jason Watts and today we are fulfilling a request from listener Tim also know as srtyder in the forums. Tim requested a show on General George Patton. You can make a request by sending a email to historypodcast@gmail.com or visiting the forums at historypodcast.blogspot.com. Also, at the end of the podcast stay tuned for this weeks question for a chance to win Left Behind from the gracious people at Hay House publishing.
George S. Patton. The S stood for Smith. He was born November 11, 1885 in San Gaberial California. That just 10 miles east of Los Angeles. Patton decided during childhood that his goal in life was to become a hero. His ancestors had fought in the Revolutionary War, the Mexican War and the Civil War, and he grew up listening to stories of their brave and successful endeavors. He attended the Virginia Military Institute for one year and went on to graduate from the United States Military Academy at West Point on June 11, 1909. Where he had become a keen student of the U.S. Civil War, especially its great cavalry leaders, an interest that no doubt contributed to the strategy of bold, highly mobile operations associated with his name. He was then commissioned a Second Lieutenant in the 15th cavalry Regiment.
Patton married Beatrice Ayer, whom he dated while at West Point, on May 26, 1910. In 1912 he represented the United States at the Stockholm Olympics in the first Modern Pentathlon. Originally open only to military officers, it was considered a rigorous test of the skills a soldier should possess. Twenty-six year old Patton did remarkably well in the five day five event sport, consisting of pistol shooting from 25 meters, sword fencing, a 300 meter free style swim, 800 meters horse back riding and a 4-kilometer cross country run. He placed fifth overall, despite a disappointing development in the shooting portion. While most chose .22 revolvers, Patton felt the event’s military roots garnered a more appropriate weapon, the .38. During the competition Patton was docked for missing the target, though he contended the lost bullet had simply passed through a large opening created by previous rounds from the .38, which left considerably larger holes.
After the Olympics, Patton kept busy taking lessons at the French cavalry School and studying French sword drills. In the summer of 1913, Patton received orders to report to the commandant of the Mounted Service School in Fort Riley, Kansas, where he became the school’s first Master of the Sword. He designed and taught a course in swordsmanship while he was a student at the school.
Patton’s first real exposure to battle occurred when he served as a member of legendary General John J. Pershing’s staff during the expedition to Mexico. In 1915, Patton was sent to Fort Bliss along the Mexican border where he led routine cavalry patrols. A year later, he accompanied Pershing as an aide on his expedition against Francisco “Pancho” Villa into Mexico. Patton gained recognition from the press for his attacks on several of Villa’s men.
Impressed by Patton’s determination, Pershing promoted him to Captain and asked him to command his Headquarters Troop upon their return from Mexico. With the onset of World War I in 1914, tanks were not being widely used. In 1917, however, Patton became the first member of the newly established United States Tank Corps, where he served until the Corps were abolished in 1920. He took full command of the Corps, directing ideas, procedures and even the design of their uniforms. Along with the British tankers, he and his men achieved victory at Cambrai, France, during the world’s first major tank battle in 1917.
Using his first-hand knowledge of tanks, Patton organized the American tank school in Bourg, France and trained the first 500 American tankers. He had 345 tanks by the time he took the brigade into the Meuse-Argonne Operation in September 1918. When they entered into battle, Patton had worked out a plan where he could be in the front lines maintaining communications with his rear command post by means of pigeons and a group of runners. Patton continually exposed himself to gunfire and was shot once in the leg while he was directing the tanks. His actions during that battle earned him the Distinguished Service Cross for Heroism, one of the many medals he would collect during his lifetime.
An outspoken advocate for tanks, Patton saw them as the future of modern combat. Congress, however, was not willing to appropriate funds to build a large armored force. Even so, Patton studied, wrote extensively and carried out experiments to improve radio communications between tanks. He also helped invent the co-axial tank mount for cannons and machine guns.
After WWI, Patton held a variety of staff jobs in Hawaii and Washington, D.C. He graduated from the Command and General Staff School in 1924, and completed his military schooling as a distinguished graduate of the Army War College in 1932.
When the German Blitzkrieg began in Europe, Patton finally convinced Congress that the United States needed a more powerful armored striking force. With the formation of the Armored Force in 1940, he was transferred to the Second Armored Division at Fort Benning, Georgia and named Commanding General on April 11, 1941. Two months later, Patton appeared on the cover of Life magazine. Also during this time, Patton began giving his famous “Blood and Guts” speeches in an amphitheater he had built to accommodate the entire division.
The United States officially entered World War II in December 1941, after the attack on Pearl Harbor. By November 8, 1942, Patton was commanding the Western Task Force, the only all-American force landing for Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of North Africa. After succeeding there, Patton commanded the US 7th Army during the invasion of Sicily in July 1943, and in conjunction with the British Eighth Army restored Sicily to its citizens. Patton commanded the Seventh Army until 1944.
The apogee of his career came with the dramatic sweep of his 3rd Army across northern France in the Summer of 1944 in a campaign marked by great initiate, ruthless drive, and disregard of classic military rules. He was given command of the Third Army in France. Patton and his troops dashed across Europe after the battle of Normandy and exploited German weaknesses with great success, covering the 600 miles across France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia.
In December his forces played a strategic role in defending Bastogene in the massive battle of the Bulge. By the end of January 1945 Patton’s forces had reached the German frontier; on March 1 they took Trier, and in the next 10 days the cleared entire region North of the Moselle River, trapping thousands of Germans. He joined the 7th army in sweeping the Saar and Palatinate, taking 100,000 prisoners.
When the Third Army liberated the Buchenwald concentration camp, Patton slowed his pace. He instituted a policy, later adopted by other commanders, of making local German civilians tour the camps. By the time WWII was over, the Third Army had liberated or conquered 81,522 square miles of territory.
Patton’s military achievements caused authorities to overlook strong civilian criticisms of some of his methods, including his widely reported striking of a hospitalized, shell-shocked soldier in August 1943. (Patton publicly apologized for this incident). His public criticisms of the Allied postwar denazification policy in Germany led to his removal from the command of the 3rd Army in October 1945.
In October 1945, Patton assumed command of the Fifteenth Army in American-occupied Germany. On December 9, he suffered injuries as the result of an automobile accident in Mannheim, Germany. He died 12 days later, on December 21, 1945 and is buried among the soldiers who died in the Battle of the Bulge in Hamm, Luxembourg.
Remembered for his fierce determination and ability to lead soldiers, Patton is now considered one of the greatest military figures in history. The 1970 film, “Patton,” starring George C. Scott in the title role, provoked renewed interest in Patton. The movie won seven Academy Awards, including Best Actor and Best Picture, and immortalized General George Smith Patton, Jr. as one of the world’s most intriguing military men. His memoirs, War As I Knew It, appeared posthumously in 1947.
Remember after the last podcast this month email in the questions and the answers for your chance to win Left Behind. At the end of the month I will also announce next months book.
And now in the listener appreciation segment. This weeks frapper mappers are:
1.Jessica from Los Angeles, California
2.Mr. Gifford from Portland, Oregon
3.James, my cousin-in-law from San Clemente, California
4.Michael from Racine, Wisconsin
5.Marine Florin from Atlanta, Georgia
In other news about listeners and actually about history, Bob Wright guest podcaster for episode 46 Food Banks has started Baseball History Podcast at bhp.libsyn.com. You can find a link to it on the website.
In other podcast related news I will be attending the Portable Media and Podcast Expo on September 29 and 30 in Ontario, California.
That is all for this episode. You can email me at historypodcast@gmail.com. Guest historypodcast are also encouraged. Thank you all very much for listening and I will speak with you next week.
Links
- General Patton.com – Used as a source for this podcast.
- Patton Society Homepage
- Patton Museum Online: Official Patton Museum of Cavalry and Armor
- Baseball History Podcast
Books
HP055: Wall Street
Wall Street is the name of a narrow street in lower Manhattan running east from Broadway downhill to the East River. Considered to be the historical heart of the Financial District, it was the first permanent home of the New York Stock Exchange. The phrase “Wall Street” is also used to refer to American financial markets and financial institutions as a whole. Interestingly, most New York financial firms are no longer headquartered on Wall Street, but elsewhere in lower or midtown Manhattan, Greenwich, Connecticut, or New Jersey. JPMorgan Chase, the last major holdout, sold its headquarters tower at 60 Wall Street to Deutsche Bank in November 2001.
Question: What is the first year Michelle mentions as a stock market crash?
Answer: 1929
Links/Sources:
- Stock Market Crash of 1987
- Stock Market Crash of 1929
- Wikipedia article on Stock Market Crash of 1929
- Wikiipedia Article
- A to Z Investments: 1929 Crash
- Source: Encyclopedia Britannica
Books
- Left To Tell : Discovering God Amidst the Rwandan Holocaust
- Confessions of a Wall Street Analyst : A True Story of Inside Information and Corruption in the Stock Market
- The First Wall Street : Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, and the Birth of American Finance
- Wall Street : A History
- Wall Street: A History : From Its Beginnings to the Fall of Enron
This show will focus on a single street and the business conducted on it. The narrow street’s location is lower Manhattan, NY and runs east from Broadway downhill to the East River. Stumped…well, this street happens to have formed a boundry for different groups of early settlers and Native Americans, during the 17th century. Still boggled…here’s another clue, trading and speculating informally took place in the late 18th century near a buttonwood tree, which thrived on the street. Looking for a more current use of the street…lets see, the street was the first permanent home of the New York Stock Exchange and is used to refer to American financial markets and financial instituations as a whole. If your thinking Wall Street, you are accurate. Wall Street, aguably the most well-known financial street worldwide, has a facinating history from the street’s inception hundreds of years ago to modern day events taking place on it daily.
Please listen as the history of Wall Street is revealed. A trip through time will uncover Wall Street’s legacy and important historical events. Also, stay tuned to find out how to win a copy of the book Left to Tell, a heroing tale of a woman’s survival of the 1994 Rwandan Holocaust.
Cha-Ching – the sounds of bells ringing and money instantanously electronically changing hands is an everyday occurance on Wall Street, but how did this street become the main headquarters of financial institutions?
Going back hundreds of years before New York City was a city, a wall actually existed. The wall was built in 1653, on the lower end of Manhattan “Island” by the Dutch, who had established the New Amsterdam settlement, to protect against potential attacks from the Lepane Indians, New England colonists, and the British. Matterials used to build the wall included, timber and earthwork. Fortunately, the wall was never tested in battle and was dismantled by the British in 1699. The road alongside the once errect wall still remained though. The street’s name was naturally, Wall Street.
In the late 18th century, there was a buttonwood tree at the foot of Wall Street under which traders and speculators would gather to trade informally. This was the origin of the New York Stock Exchange. With many established cities worldwide having formed a headquarters for trade and commerce, the United States followed suit and established a place for formal stock and bond trading. The year was 1792, and Wall Street was the street destined to become New York’s center of commerce. Here’s insight to the area at this time: the population of New York City was about 34,000, excluding Brooklyn and Queens which were still separate towns. Also, a majority of Manhattan had just been rebuilt with brick buildings after the devastating Great Fire of 1776. Wall Street was not even yet paved or even lined with cobblestones. Wealthy businessmen, in addition to their ordinary trade, would sell the following: lottery tickets, bonds, and shares of stocks in new banks that were forming. The hottest trading and speculating was in treasury bonds, which were issued by the new Bank of the United States. In 1791, 100 shares actually did formally change hands.
Until 1792, a person wanting to buy or sell an investment would accomplish the objective by either advertising or word of mouth among associates and friends. Some of the first merchants to keep a supply of stock shares on hand were Leonard Bleeker at 16 Wall Street and Sutton & Harry at 20 Wall Street.
The first organized stock exchange was created in 1792, when John Sutton, Benjamin Jay, and 22 other financial leaders signed an agreement of rules, regulations and fees. After the agreement was finalized, in a building at 22 Wall Street, securities were auctioned every day beginning at noon and sold to the highest bidder. The seller paid the exchange a commission on each stock or bond sold. The founders originally called this organization, The Stock Exchange Office. This organization was quite exclusive, by granting membership to only the elite of New York’s financial community. At the time, women were not allowed membership, but now women do have such an opportunity extended. In fact, Muriel Siebert was the first female member of the New York Stock Exchange.
In 1882, the Dow Jones, the then name was Dow, Jones & Company, was founded by Charles Henry Dow, Edward Davis Jones and Charles Milford Bergstresser in a small basement office at 15 Wall Street. The Company starts producing daily hand-written news bulletins called “flimsies” delivered by messenger to subscribers in the Wall Street area, resulting in the inception of the Dow Jones Newswires. In 1884, the Dow Jones Indexes is founded with the Dow Jones Averages, the creation of Charles Dow, appearing for the first time in the “Customers’ Afternoon Letter.” Information was provided for 11 stocks: nine railroads and two industrials. This was the precursor to the Dow Jones Industrial Average, which was launched in 1896, and consisted soley of industrial stocks. On July 8, 1889, the Dow Jones & Company’s “Customers’ Afternoon Letter” becomes the Wall Street Journal; its quite apparent that the paper’s title is referencing New York City’s Wall Street. Amazingly to think of now, but the Journal contained only four pages and sold for two cents; advertising was 20 cents a line. The Wall Street Journal still remains an influential international daily business newspaper published in New York City. For many years, it had the widest circulation of any newspaper in the United States, although it is currently second to USA Today.
The year 1929 is an infamous year on Wall Street, as the events that occurred on October 28th and 29th,1929, are linked to the Great Depression. On these days, the Dow dropped 69 points to 230. By the stockmarket’s close on October 29, the Dow had lost 39.6% since its high on September 3rd. The market bounce that followed was shortlived, and by early November the Dow had broken down to new lows. People’s fortunes and entire investments were wiped out, due to investors commonly using the liberal 10:1 margin (big loans to buy stock) available to them. Stories do exist about the stock market “crash” of 1929 causing dozens of people to commit suicide by jumping out of windows, shooting themselves, and reportedly the news causing heart attacks. The great worldwide depression of the 1930’s is often attributed to the stockmarket crash. The decrease in the stockmarket’s valuation did get worse though, when the market hit bottom on August 12, 1932. On that day, the Dow hit a low of 63, which is the same value the Dow had when it began in 1896, where the market had lost almost 89% of what it was once valued at. However, in addition to the stockmarket’s extreme devaluation, other circumstances did contribute greatly to the rapid decline in the standard of living for many Americans. At the time, most Americans didn’t play the stock market, but rather kept their savings in banks. The failure of so many banks, along with rising unemployment, triggered so much suffering during the early 1930’s.
The stock market loss momentum again on Monday, October 19, 1987, the Dow Jones Industrial Average fell 508.32 and closed at a record-breaking low of 1,738.40 points. This date is referred to as Black Monday and is documented as the single day worst stock market crash in history. The 22.9% loss in 1987 almost doubles the percentage lost in the Crash of 1929, which was 12.82%. Several stockmarket analysts concur that the crash was attributed to a number of events, including the poor choices of portfolio insurance professionals and program trading. One of the results of the crash was the creation of circuit breakers, techniques to restrict trading times in the market when market value is very high and volatile. Also, communication between stockmarket regulators and investors has increased, along with the access of the market to its investors.
Overall, the stockmarket has risen in value drastically. People confidently flock to the stockmarket as a source of investment for both long-term and short-term stocks. Currently, the stockmarket is so diversified with many various industries selling stocks. Many brokerage firms have formed, and with the advent of the Internet so widely used, its commonplace for individuals to just buy and sell stocks using Internet trading accounts. Internet trading accounts typically have a much lower commission fee than utilizing the traditional ways of trading stocks, which would be with a stock broker. A modern day fact that may be of interest is that most NY financial firms are no longer headquartered on Wall Street, but elsewhere in lower or midtown Manhattan, Greenwich, Connecticut, or New Jersey. In fact, JPMorgan Chase, the last major holdout, sold its headquarters tower at 60 Wall Street to Deutsche Bank in November 2001.
Prior to Wall Street being the focal point of the American financial markets, Boston was the financial center of America. Bonds for projects such as roads, canals and bridges, and contracts for commodities such as hides and molasses, were bought and sold mostly by Boston dealers. However, an official place to conduct such business did not exist, until the initiation of Wall Street. Also, Belgium established the world’s first exchange in 1531, with Amsterdam soon following suit. In 1602, under the Amstel bridge, transactions of the East India Company’s shares took place. The monies raised here financed the Pilgrim’s trip to America. At this time, Paris conducted their financial business on Rue de Quincampoix. Also, during the early 1600’s, Berlin’s traders and merchants conducted their business at the Grotte in Schlossgarten. London’s stock exchange also began, as an outdoor market centered on Exchange Alley. By 1725, many London brokers began conducting business at Jonathon’s Coffee House, which was renamed “The Stock Exchange” in 1773. Then, an advertisement by a broker named John Taylor proclaimed “Buyeth and selleth new lottery tickets, Navy victualling bills, East India bonds, and other publick securities”.
The business of buying and selling stocks, bonds, and securities does indeed have a robust and fascinating history. Hope you found this HistoryPodcast to shed some light on the events and circumstances that led to Wall Street becoming such a prominent and well-known street for financial transactions.
HP054: Charles Parnell
Charles Stewart Parnell (June 27, 1846 – October 6, 1891) was an Irish political leader and one of the most important figures in 19th century Ireland and the United Kingdom; William Ewart Gladstone thought him the most remarkable person he had ever met. A future Liberal Prime Minister, Herbert Henry Asquith, described him as one of the three or four greatest men of the nineteenth century, while Lord Haldane described him as the strongest man the British House of Commons had seen in 150 years.
Links
- Podcast for Good
- Wikipedia Article
- Clare County Library Also used as source for this podcast
- Ireland Information site about Parnell
- BBC History of Parnell
Books
- James Joyce:
- A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (Penguin Classics)
- Ulysses (Vintage International)
- Finnegans Wake (Penguin Twentieth-Century Classics)
- Parnell:
- Charles Stewart Parnell;: His love story and political life,
- Parnell and Irish nationalism
- Charles Stewart Parnell (Compact Irish History)
- Bonnie and Clyde:
- Ambush: The Real Story of Bonnie and Clyde
Listener Email
Hello, I just listened to your podcast. I liked it but there are a few errors. First of all you birth dates wrong. bonnie was born in 1909. Clyde in 1910. 2nd Ted rogers killed bucher in hillsboro Clyde was in the car. Ted rogers looked very much like ray hanillton that’s why he was accused of the killing. 3rd Bonnie was not at that dance with clyde. 4th Bonnie never shot that bar in joplin. 5th Blance did 6 years not 10. her sentence was ten. Henry Methvin did not betray Bonnie and Clyde. Ivy Methvin was taking by the posse ( which included ted Hinton Who wrote the book ambush)and was forced to help the posse. After it was over Hinton and hamer Told Ivy Methvin if he keeps his mouth shut and dosn’t tell the F.B.I. they would drop all the his son had in texas. Ted Hinton Tells this in his book. Why would he lie about that. He said they broke the law to get Bonnie and Clyde Hinton tarnist his carrer by atmiting that. read ambush and Bonnie ans Clyde a twenty first update. I hope you correct there errors. Thanks Dave
HP053: Tiananmen Square
The Tiananmen Square Protests of 1989, also known as the Tiananmen Square Massacre, June 4th Incident, or “Political Turmoil between Spring and Summer of 1989” by the Chinese government, were a series of student-led demonstrations in the People’s Republic of China which occurred between April 15, 1989 and June 4, 1989. The protest is named after the location of the forceful suppression of the movement in Tian’anmen Square, Beijing by the People’s Liberation Army. The protestors came from disparate groups, ranging from intellectuals who believed the Communist Party-led government was too corrupt and repressive, to urban workers who believed Chinese economic reform had gone too far and that the resulting rampant inflation and widespread unemployment was threatening their livelihoods.
Links
- Wikipedia Article
- BBC On This Day
- A Film on the event
- CNN Indepth Special
- Amnesty International
- Lots of Pictures
- Time Article on the Unknown Rebel (the man who faced the tanks)
- Remembering Tiananmen Square
Books
- Voices from Tiananmen Square : Beijing Spring and the Democracy Movement
- The Tiananmen Papers : The Chinese Leadership’s Decision to Use Force Against Their Own People – In Their Own Words
- I’m reading: Tiananmen Square
NOTE: There are plenty of misspellings and notes for me to use while reading the script. Please keep that in mind when you read through the script. Thanks!
Welcome to historypodcast 53. I’m Jason Watts coming to you from Irvine, CA. This episode we will be covering Tiananmen Square. Please excuse any mispronunciations in this episode. I’m not an expert, just a lover of history like you.
Story
1989 is the year that communism died, but not in China. Millions of students and residents of Beijing crowd into Tiananmen square. A 5,000 year administration of autocratic rule looks like it is about to evaporate. The Tiananmen square protest shocks the world.
June 6 1989 – Beijing china. The people liberation army has brutally crushed the 2 month old Tiananmen square protest.
The one image that is conjured up in most peoples minds is the lone individual who stepped in front of a column of tanks causing them to halt. He was pulled away by bystanders. We still do not know how this man was.
This is the symbol of the story that most westerners know bravely and principle confronting the grime tools of oppression. A war hidden from the cameras. A secret coup that plays out here in a public square, that is the heart of china.
Tiananmen square. It is the largest public space in the world. It combines the national symbolism of the mall in Washington dc with the iconic power of Times Square. It’s the place were people go that are unhappy and they want to be heard.
June 4 1989 – the disputed power behind the scenes during the Tiananmen square crack down is den Xiaoping (Dun ZOW PING). He created enormous economic vitality for china. Part of his legacy is the decision to crack down. He is also seen as a person who caused innocents to die, who used an iron fist approach to a democratic movement. Deng is a pragmaticacasts cutting a striking contrast to his predecessor, MAO SE TUNG. Who is an idealistic revolutionary. By the early 1960’s MAO has run the country into the ground. The communist party pushes MAO aside and turns to china’s elite burocrats including deng Xiaoping (Dun ZOW PING). They immediately restore order to China’s finances.
1966 MAO strikes back by unleashing the cultural revolution. His weapon is a fanatical army of teenagers called “the red guard” directed to struggle against their elders. Millions of people parish in the chaos. MAO vengeance strikes MAO xiaoping personally. MAO and his wife were exiled to a remote area of china where they did not see their children for many many years.
1972 – as china’s economy once again threatens to implode. Deng Xiaoping makes a phoenix like return to power.
1978 – with the death of Mao Deng xiaoping is firmly in power declaring to get rich is glorious. Then opens the long closed borders of china to western goods. Yet the dramatic change has some unexpected consequences.
Deng quickly makes it clear how much openness he is willing to take.
1979 – a group of dissenence puts up a poster demanding democracy. The government promptly crushes the movement and jails the critics.
The line has been drawn. If its outside the governments control its out of bounds. Deng Xiaoping believed absolute power must reside at the head of the communist party. Two factions within dengs government spring from his paradoxical design for reform and stability of the communist party above all else and the reformist who nudge the government into losing political controls.
In the mid 1980s dengs number 2 man is reformer Hu Yaobang. A very open minded person who would allow liberated intellectuals to write things and say things and go to meetings and say things that some other party officials did not approve of.
1987 – students start a wave of protest. Deng sides with hard liners who argue that china has exposed itself too much to western political thought. Hu is pushed out of office yet the conflict between freedom and stability remain unresolved.
It is a crisis waiting to happen. And it all starts with a heart attack. 1987 – deng Xiaoping survives the cultural revolution to rise from MAOs shadow and become the leader of china. He charts the nation on a path towards free market declaring to get rich is glorious. Yet after intellectuals demand democracy deng crushes them to get rich may be glorious but the communist party is always in charge. By the spring of 1989 the public is growing impatient with the pace of reform.
April 15 1989 – the fatal heart attack of reformer Hu Yao Bang. Spontaneously people begin to lay wreaths at the monument of the revolutionary heroes. His death in a sense was a signal to all the students that we have to do something. Their demands are basic: better food in the cafeteria, better conditions in the dormitories, and more funding for schools. Yet behind this is restlessness for political charge. Their word for it is democracy.
The people of Beijing have their own complaints. For the first time in the history of the peoples republic for china inflation is becoming an issue. The people decided to back the students because of these inflation problems. They feed the students and bring them water.
April 22, 1989 – the entire paulette beaureau gathers for the funeral of Hu Yao Bang. General secretary Xiaoping delivers the eulogy. He is hu yaobang’s protégé and successor. Also there, is premiere le phung a hard liner and successor to apparent le zhao zung.
April 23 1989 – recently uncovered government transcripts show the strong reaction of the hard liners. Le phung says students are taking to the streets, sending convoys into factories, high schools, elementary schools and even to other provinces in a effort to stir the entire nation to boycott classes and go on strike. The official media publishes an angry editorial on April 26th. The article blames the protest on a small number of people. Its says their goal is to poison peoples minds to create turmoil throughout the country. The government has laid down the gauntlet instead of the protest fizzling as a result of the editorial 100,000 people march to the square the following day.
May 1, 1989 – the paulette beareu calls an emergency meeting. Recently declassified transcripts revealing the ranker in this meeting. Le Phung claims that if protestors have their way everything will vanish into thin air and china will take a huge step backwards. Zhao Zung pleads for modernization in these secret transcripts saying that the students slogans uphold the constitution, promote democracy and oppose corruption. All echo positions of the party and the government. I share everyone’s view that we should move quickly to diffuse the situation that has nearly gotten out of hand.
May 4, 1989 – A quarter of a million people fill Tiananmen square in the largest protest yet. Demonstrations have spread to 51 cities across china. That same day zao zung delivers a speech to the Asian development bank. He declares that the government should engage in dialog with the protestors. This is in contradiction to the april 24th editorial. Zhao Zung may not realize it yet, but the noose is slowly tightening around his neck. Meanwhile, students at Tiananmen square raise the steaks. They vow to starve themselves to death. This is a bold move that strikes a deep emotional cord with the Chinese people. The hunger strike electrifies the movement. The split between the reformers and the hardliners hardens as the government sinks into paralysis. A further complication is the impending state visit of Mical Gorbachof. The reformers reached out to the student protestors hoping to get them to clear the square before the summit. Just hours before Gorbachov is scheduled to arrive. Government officials tell the students that a live televised meeting is technically impossible on such short notice. The façade of the student union cracks.
May 15, 1989 – gorbachov arrives in Beijing. What is supposed to be a feather in Dengs cap turns into a thorn in his side. Thousands of journalists are in Beijing with brand new satellite links to cover the summit. More than one western correspondent compares the square with Woodstock, the three day rock festival often quoted as the high point of the 1960s protest movement in the US.
May 17, 1989 – 1.2 million people converge on the square making it the largest mass protest in the history of the peoples republic of china. There is an electric sense in the square that history has reached a tipping point. That same day an emergency meeting of the standing committee convenes seeding with anger over the international humiliation of the summit. Deng Xiaoping quietly pushes for marshal law. The committee follows den’s lead and votes to authorize marshal law. The hunger strike continues.
May 18, 1989 – as the hunger strike enters its 5th day the government agrees to one final meeting and unprecedented dialog between le phung and student leaders to be aired live on national television. Le phung clearly intends to lecture the protestors as if they were unruly children. But student leader wor-ke-she who comes straight from the hospital wearing pajamas and still connected to an IV drip, has little patients for le phungs paternalistic arrogances. The hard liners give up hope of getting the students to obey through dialog. The prepare for marshal law. Meanwhile in the early morning hours of may 19th zao zung ventures into Tiananmen. This is the last time he appears in public. Rumors of zao’s fall and the coming of marshal law ripple thought Beijing. On the evening of may 19th the blade finally falls. In a fiery televised speech le phung declares marshal law. Once again instead of gaining the upper hand as the hardliners expected, they lose control and credibility. And for the first time since its founding the communist party fights to maintain power and they will do anything to keep it.
Despite international pleas, the government is ready to send in the troops. The reaction of the declaration is swift. The students abandon their hunger strike and prepare for a crackdown. Meanwhile, as the troop transports enter the city the night of may 19th enraged citizens of Beijing block major intersections, preventing the troops from entering the square. This is no longer just a student protest. This is a city wide revolt. Shocked by the out pouring of emotion against marshal law the government withdrawals the troops to the suburbs and tries to shore up its base. Meanwhile, as the city of Beijing rejoices the mood in the square grows sour. Students passionately debate weather or not to vacate the square and head off a violent conflict. Though they demand more than democracy from the government the students are unclear how democracy works. The situation in the square is increasingly chaotic and soon the leadership is out stripped by new more radical elements.
May 29, 1989 – a new icon graces Tiananmen square. Students from the art academy erect a 30 foot statue dubbed the goddess of democracy. A pure white figure clutching a flame with two hands and starring directly at the portratit of MAO on the forbidden city. Meanwhile, li phung and fellow hardliners orchestrate a decisive violent end to the crisis. In recently released government transcripts from a meeting on June 3rd 1989, le phung states “we have to be absolutely firm in putting down this counter revolutionary riot in the capital. We must be miraculous, security forces are authorized to use any means necessary to deal with people who interfere with the mission. What happens will be the responsibility of these who do not heed warnings and persist in testing elements of the law.” That day, the city of Beijing begins to hold its breath preparing for the worst. That evening the troops mobilize once again for the Chinese capital. The stage is set for a massacre.
June 3rd 1989 – over 50,000 troops along with armored personnel carriers enter the city from every direction. Just as on the day after marshal law is declared. Towns people pour into the streets in an attempt to thwart the army. The troops entered the square firing live ammunition. The streets of Beijing soon become killing fields. Most of the people die in this horrible night are in fact not students, but outraged citizens in the wrong place at the wrong time. Meanwhile, in the square a sense of panic and confusion builds. The closer the army comes to the square the stiffer the resistance from the towns people. In the center of the killing thousands of students sit holding hands and singing songs.
June 4, 1989 – 5am with the square ringed with jumpy troops and the remainder of the students huddled around the monument of peoples heroes. A couple of the intellectuals negotiate a peaceful withdrawal from the square. Troops take control, crushing the goddess of democracy under the treads of a tank. The killing continues throughout the night and into the following day. Jun 9th 1989 – dung Xiaoping appears on television praising the military for successfully crushing the riot. The states first report of the event claims that 1,000 soldiers died while only 23 counter revolutionary thugs and hooligans perished. These numbers seem improbable even in a country used to hyperbolic propaganda and soon causality figures are revised to 300 counter revolutionaries. Western experts put the number between several hundred and a few thousand. We will likely never know and exact amount. Since then the square is patrolled day and night by secret police watching for an sign of protest. Most dissidents are jailed of exiled. And in 2005 zao zing dies under house arrest. To his last breath zao refuses to renounce his opposition to the June 4th crackdown. He was under house arrest for 16 years. Now china is poised to become a prominent world power. Yet Tiananmen remains an explosive issue. The protests were the first time a popular uprising challenged the communist party. As china moves into the 21st century and does more and more business with the rest of the world, time will tell what new challenges face china and weather those changes will bring unity or conflict to Tiananmen Square.
Source: History Channel Program Declassified
Tons of links to more information about Tiananmen Square on the website.
Notes
That’s all of the history. Please stay tuned for some notes on this podcasts and its amazing listeners….
I would like to take this time to again thank all of you for listening. If you are not subscribed please do. If you are not sure how please email me at historypodcast@gmail.com and I will help you through it.
There are a lot of you listening. Please help me guide this podcast in the right direction by emailing in your feedback and subjections for future shows.
In appreciation of my listeners I would like to add a new segment to the end of the podcast for some of the diehard listeners who participate on the website, in the forums and on the frapper map.
Next week we have two birthdays:
Wdiv – on the 21st And Csevb10 – on the 22nd
A big History Podcast Happy Birthday to both of you!
If you want your birthday read on history podcast just sign up at the message boards.
I would also like to mention some frapper mappers every week, we are now up to 83 frapper pins! This week I would like to thank the following 5 frapper mappers:
- Christy from Greenwood, South Carolina, I think we all know which Christy this is. If you don’t know what I am talking about please check out episodes 38 and 32. And now she of course has her own podcast pseychology.
- Susan Kitchens from Monrovia, California, I was lucky enough to meet Susan at the last Podcast expo in Ontario, California.
- Tom Barker from Lawerance, Kansas, Tom has done seven episodes for us including episodes 16, 18, 21, 28, 35, 40 and 42.
- John McCoy in Cedar Hill, Texas.
- John Whitlock in Healdsburg, California
Wow, it took me a long time to put that list together since there are so many contributors in that list. I have been very lucky to have such amazing listeners. Thank you to all of you!
Check out the website at historypodcast.blogspot.com for past episodes and lots of links to more information on each history podcast episode. Oh and I almost forgot again the TV listings have made their return to the website.
The music you have heard in the background of this episode was obtained from music.podshow.com and will be listed on the website.
HP052: Saint Patricks Day
Saint Patrick’s Day (March 17), is the Irish feast day which celebrates Saint Patrick (386-493), the patron saint of Ireland. It is a legal holiday in the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, the overseas territory of Montserrat and the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It is celebrated worldwide by the Irish and increasingly by many of non-Irish descent. A major parade takes place in Dublin and in most other Irish towns and villages. The five largest parades of recent years have been held in Dublin, New York City, Manchester, Montreal, and Boston. Parades also take place in other places, including London, Paris, Rome, Munich, Moscow, Beijing, Hong Kong, Singapore, Copenhagen and throughout the Americas.
Links:
The Music
Welcome to episode 52 of HistoryPodcast.
As usual things are a bit crazy here at home and my real day job has been taking up a lot of my time. So my wonderful wife Michelle was kind enough to put together todays script. Thank you Michelle. I hope you all enjoy the music throughout this podcast, I thought it appropriate.
St. Patrick’s Day History
Curious as to why March 17 is the day to wear green, shamrocks abound, and there’s talk of leprechauns and rainbows with pots of gold, then listen to this history podcast about St. Patrick’s Day to learn about the person behind the festive day.
Near the end of the fourth century, St. Patrick was born with the name Maewyn in Wales, Britain to wealthy parents. He is believed to have died on March 17, around 460, which is the date celebrated as St. Patrick’s Day. He’s the patron saint of Ireland and one of Christianity’s most widely known figures. Although his memory is widely celebrated, his life is shrouded in mystery. This podcast will unravel the little known facts about St. Patrick and provide more insight as to why he’s such a celebrated saint.
Ironically, St. Patrick considered himself a pagan until the age of 16. His family was not particularly religious. His father was a Christian deacon, but it was believed that he took on the position for tax incentives. At 16, he was taken prisoner by a group of Irish raiders who attacked his family’s estate. The raiders transported him to Ireland, where he spent six years in captivity. While captive, he worked as a shepherd, outdoors and away from people. During his isolation in captivity, he turned to religion for solace. As a result, he became a devout Christian. It’s believed that during his captivity, he first began to dream of converting the Irish people to Christianity.
To make his spiritual dream a reality, Patrick escaped from prison. His source of inspiration for the escape was God. As stated in his writing, God’s voice spoke to him in a dream and told him the time had come to leave Ireland. Patrick fulfilled what he believed as God’s wishes by walking nearly 200 miles from County Mayo, where it is believed he was held, to the Irish coast, then into Britain. That is quite an incredible distance to journey on foot. Patrick is reported to have experienced a second revelation, where an angel in a dream tells him to return to Ireland as a missionary. Patrick abided by the angel’s request and began religious training. This course of study lasted a period of more than fifteen years. During that time, he adopted the Christian name, Patrick. Patrick’s religious superiors initially appointed St. Palladius to Ireland in order to convert the native pagans to Christianity. St. Palladius transferred to Scotland two-year’s later. As a result, Patrick was appointed as second bishop to Ireland and granted the opportunity to spread Christianity throughout Ireland. Patrick was sent to Ireland with a dual mission: to minister to Christians already living in Ireland and to begin to convert the Irish.
Patrick familiarity with the Irish language and culture proved instrumental in his Christianity lessons. Instead of attempting to eradicate native Irish beliefs, Patrick opted to incorporate traditional ritual into his lessons of Christianity. For example, he used bonfires to celebrate Easter. He also superimposed a sun, a powerful Irish symbol, onto the Christian cross to create what is now called a Celtic cross. His rationale for incorporating these elements into his teaching had a profound correlation to the native traditions. The Irish were accustomed to honoring their gods with fire, and the veneration of the cross would seem more natural to the Irish, as the symbol tied in familiarity with the sun.
Patrick’s was noticeably successful at winning converts, which upset the Celtic Druids. Despite several arrests, Patrick managed to escape each time. His passion for spreading Christianity motivated him to flee persecution and imprisonment. He established monasteries, schools, and churches, as he traveled throughout Ireland. These establishments helped him in his efforts for the Irish conversion to Christianity. Patrick’s mission in Ireland spanned thirty years, after which time he retired to County Down. He died March 17 in AD 461, the day commemorated as St. Patrick’s Day.
Awareness of Patrick’s life comes mainly from his two works, the Confessio, a spiritual autobiography, and his Epistola, a denunciation of British mistreatment of Irish Christians. He portrayed himself as a “most humble-minded man, pouring forth continuous praise and thanks to his Maker for having chosen him as the instrument whereby multitudes who had worshipped idols and unclean things had become the people of God.”
The Irish culture is centered on a rich tradition of oral legend and myth. When this is considered, it’s not too surprising that the story of Patrick’s life became exaggerated over the centuries—spinning exciting tales to remember history has always been a part of the Irish way of life. As a result of exaggerated storytelling spanning hundreds of years, several stories traditionally associated with St. Patrick are false, such as the famous account of his banishing all the snakes from Ireland. In fact, snakes are not native to Ireland. As Patrick had a dual mission both one of ministering to active Christians as well as to introduce the religion, this mission contradicts the widely held notion that Patrick introduced Christianity to Ireland.
Saint Patrick’s Day, March 17th, intended meaning for celebration is a traditional day for spiritual renewal and offering prayers for missionaries worldwide. Many Irish attend mass on that day. St. Patrick’s Day was originally a Catholic holy day, but has evolved into more of a secular holiday. The day also widely includes associations with everything Irish: anything green and gold, shamrocks and luck. One traditional icon of the day is the shamrock, which stems from a more genuine Irish tale that tells how Patrick used the three-leafed shamrock to explain the Trinity. He used the shamrock in sermons to represent how the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit could all exist as separate elements of the same entity. This inspired the custom of wearing a shamrock on his feast day. In Ireland, with the exception of restaurants and pubs, practically all businesses close for parties, parades, and festive activities. Ireland’s largest annual party, St. Patrick’s Festival will be in full swing from March 15th – 19th 2006. The St. Patrick’s Day custom came to America in 1737. That was the first year St. Patrick’s Day was publicly celebrated in this country, in Boston. Both large cities and small towns in America celebrate with parades, “wearing of the green,” music and songs, Irish food and drink, and children’s activities. St. Patrick’s Day popularity could be attributed to the day occurring just a few days before the first day of spring, plus people enjoy an opportunity to celebrate and enjoy parties.
HP050: Hockey
Ice hockey, referred to simply as “hockey” in Canada and the United States, is a team sport played on ice. It is one of the world’s fastest sports, with players on skates capable of going high speeds on natural or artificial ice surfaces. The most prominent ice hockey nations are Canada, Czech Republic, Finland, Russia, Sweden, Slovakia, and the United States. While there are 64 total members of the International Ice Hockey Federation, those seven nations have traditionally dominated the field for decades. Of the sixty medals awarded in men’s competition at the Olympic level between 1920 and 2002, only six did not go to one of those countries (or a former entity thereof, such as Czechoslovakia or the Soviet Union) and only one such medal was awarded above bronze.
Links:
- Wikipedia Hockey
- NHL (National Hockey League)
- USA Hockey
- The Science of Hockey
- Hockey Hall of Fame
- Hockey Statistics Database
- Hockey News
Books
- Hockey for Dummies
- The Boys of Winter : The Untold Story of a Coach, a Dream, and the 1980 U.S. Olympic Hockey Team
- The Greatest Hockey Stories Ever Told : The Finest Writers on Ice (Greatest)
- Hockey Tough
Oh my gosh were on episode 50!
It finally happened HistoryPodcast has made it to episode 50. Wow. A huge thank you to all the listeners. You guys rock! Keep sending in your comments, suggestions and general feedback to historypodcast@gmail.com. And check out the website at historypodcast.blogspot.com where Christy Croft of Physyceology has just started a very interesting thread.
As you may have guessed from todays introduction music this episode will be about the history of Hockey. I am a new fan of this sport since watching the Winter Olympics this year. I have been Tivoing everything I can. This of course has caused a short gap in publishing the TV Listing on the website, don’t worry the listings will come back right after the Olympics are complete, but right now all I’m watching is Hockey!
The word “hockey” comes from the old French word “hocquet”, meaning “stick”. The origins of ice hockey are unclear, but it is widely accepted that the British are responsible for bringing hockey to North America. Soldiers stationed in Nova Scotia, Canada, played the earliest games. In 1879, a group of college students at McGill University in Montreal organized competitions and developed the first known set of hockey rules. The sport migrated south to the United States during the 1890s. The first known hockey games took place between Johns Hopkins and Yale Universities in 1895. The first Olympic Games to include ice hockey for men were the Antwerp Games in 1920. However, the first Olympic Winter Games took place in 1924 in Chamonix.
Ice hockey is a Canadian sport which began in the early 19th century. It is based on several similar sports played in Europe, notably bandy in Scandinavia, and is somewhat similar to the sports of shinny and hurley. Around 1860, a puck was substituted for a ball, and in 1879, two McGill University students, W. F. Robertson and R. F. Smith, devised the first rules, combining field hockey and rugby regulations. Originally, the game was played as a nine-a-side competition. The first recognized team, the McGill University Hockey Club, was formed in 1880. Hockey became the Canadian national sport, with leagues everywhere. In 1894, Lord Stanley of Preston, Governor General of Canada, donated the Stanley Cup, which was first won in 1894 by a team representing the Montreal Amateur Athletic Association. Between the 1880s and World War I, ice hockey became popular in Europe. The first European Championship was played in 1910 at Les Avants in the Swiss Alps, and won by Great Britain. Ice hockey also spread below the border to the United States with the foundation of the United States Amateur Hockey League in New York in 1896.
At the Olympic Winter Games, women compete in an eight-team tournament, whereas men compete in a 12-team tournament. A team must not have more than six players on the ice while play is in progress. Typically, these players are one goalkeeper, two defenders, two wings and one centre. Fewer players can be on the ice as a result of penalties: a goalkeeper can be replaced by a skater during a delayed penalty, or at any other time of the game, at the team’s risk. A regular game consists of three 20-minute periods, with a 15-minute intermission after the first and second periods. Teams change ends for each period. If a tie occurs in a medal-round game in which a winner must be determined, a five-minute sudden-victory overtime period is played. In the gold medal game, a 20-minute sudden-victory period is played subsequent to another 15-minute intermission. In the case of a tie after any sudden-victory period, a game-winning penalty shoot competition takes place to determine the winner.
Ice hockey was played at the 1920 Summer Olympic Games in Antwerp, held in early April. These were also the first world championships and were played by seven-man sides; the only time seven-man teams were ever to play at the Olympic Games. In 1924, the current standard of six men on the ice at a time was used at the Olympic Games. Ice hockey has been played at every Olympic Winter Games. Canada dominated early Olympic ice hockey tournaments, as might be expected. From 1956, when it first entered the Olympic Winter Games and easily won the ice hockey tournament, and until its break-up, the Soviet Union was the pre-eminent country, their dominance interrupted only by American major upset victories in 1960 and 1980. From the 1980s, professional hockey players who had played in the National Hockey League (NHL) were declared eligible to compete in the Olympic ice hockey tournament. These professionals primarily represented Sweden, Finland, and Czechoslovakia at the Olympic Games, as the Canadian and American players were competing in the NHL season. However, at the Nagano Games in 1998, the NHL suspended play for two weeks to allow all NHL players to represent their nations at the Olympic Games. This was repeated in 2002 in Salt Lake City. Women’s ice hockey began to develop in the 1920s in Canada. By the 1960s, women’s ice hockey in Canada became more organized, with girls’ leagues throughout the nation. In 1982, the Ontario Women’s Hockey Association organized the first Canadian national tournament. Concurrently, women’s teams and leagues began to develop in the United States and Europe. The first international championship was the World Invitational Tournament in 1987 in Missisauga, Ontario, Canada. The International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) began to plan a women’s world championship. European women’s championships began in 1989, and the first women’s world ice hockey championship took place in 1990. Women’s ice hockey was approved as an Olympic sport in 1992, and made its debut in Nagano in 1998.
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